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1 Burgi, Jost
SUBJECT AREA: Horology[br]b. 28 February 1552 Lichtensteig, Switzerlandd. 31 January 1632 Kassel, Germany[br]Swiss clockmaker and mathematician who invented the remontoire and the cross-beat escapement, also responsible for the use of exponential notation and the calculation of tables of anti-logarithms.[br]Burgi entered the service of Duke William IV of Hesse in 1579 as Court Clockmaker, although he also assisted William with his astronomical observations. In 1584 he invented the cross-beat escapement which increased the accuracy of spring-driven clocks by two orders of magnitude. During the last years of the century he also worked on the development of geometrical and astronomical instruments for the Royal Observatory at Kassel.On the death of Duke Wilhelm in 1603, and with news of his skills having reached the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II, in 1604 he went to Prague to become Imperial Watchmaker and to assist in the creation of a centre of scientific activity, subsequently becoming Assistant to the German astronomer, Johannes Kepler. No doubt this association led to an interest in mathematics and he made significant contributions to the concept of decimal fractions and the use of exponential notation, i.e. the use of a raised number to indicate powers of another number. It is likely that he was developing the idea of logarithms at the same time (or possibly even before) Napier, for in 1620 he made his greatest contribution to mathematics, science and, eventually, engineering, namely the publication of tables of anti-logarithms.At Prague he continued the series of accurate clocks and instruments for astronomical measurements that he had begun to produce at Kassel. At that period clocks were very poor timekeepers since the controller, the foliot or balance, had no natural period of oscillation and was consequently dependent on the driving force. Although the force of the driving weight was constant, irregularities occurred during the transmission of the power through the train as a result of the poor shape and quality of the gearing. Burgi attempted to overcome this directly by superb craftsmanship and indirectly by using a remontoire. This device was wound at regular intervals by the main driving force and fed the power directly to the escape wheel, which impulsed the foliot. He also introduced the crossbeat escapement (a variation on the verge), which consisted of two coupled foliots that swung in opposition to each other. According to contemporary evidence his clocks produced a remarkable improvement in timekeeping, being accurate to within a minute a day. This improvement was probably a result of the use of a remontoire and the high quality of the workmanship rather than a result of the cross-beat escapement, which did not have a natural period of oscillation.Burgi or Prague clocks, as they were known, were produced by very few other makers and were supplanted shortly afterwards by the intro-duction of the pendulum clock. Burgi also produced superb clockwork-driven celestial globes.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsEnnobled 1611.BibliographyBurgi only published one book, and that was concerned with mathematics.Further ReadingL.von Mackensen, 1979, Die erste Sternwarte Europas mit ihren Instrumenten and Uhren—400 Jahre Jost Burgi in Kassel, Munich.K.Maurice and O.Mayr (eds), 1980, The Clockwork Universe, Washington, DC, pp. 87– 102.H.A.Lloyd, 1958, Some Outstanding Clocks Over 700 Years, 1250–1950, London. E.T.Bell, 1937, Men of Mathematics, London: Victor Gollancz.See also: Briggs, HenryKF / DV -
2 Boole, George
SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology[br]b. 2 November 1815 Lincoln, Englandd. 8 December 1864 Ballintemple, Coounty Cork, Ireland[br]English mathematician whose development of symbolic logic laid the foundations for the operating principles of modern computers.[br]Boole was the son of a tradesman, from whom he learned the principles of mathematics and optical-component manufacturing. From the early age of 16 he taught in a number of schools in West Yorkshire, and when only 20 he opened his own school in Lincoln. There, at the Mechanical Institute, he avidly read mathematical journals and the works of great mathematicians such as Lagrange, Laplace and Newton and began to tackle a variety of algebraic problems. This led to the publication of a constant stream of original papers in the newly launched Cambridge Mathematical Journal on topics in the fields of algebra and calculus, for which in 1844 he received the Royal Society Medal.In 1847 he wrote The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, which applied algebraic symbolism to logical forms, whereby the presence or absence of properties could be represented by binary states and combined, just like normal algebraic equations, to derive logical statements about a series of operations. This laid the foundations for the binary logic used in modern computers, which, being based on binary on-off devices, greatly depend on the use of such operations as "and", "nand" ("not and"), "or" and "nor" ("not or"), etc. Although he lacked any formal degree, this revolutionary work led to his appointment in 1849 to the Chair of Mathematics at Queen's College, Cork, where he continued his work on logic and also produce treatises on differential equations and the calculus of finite differences.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsRoyal Society Medal 1844. FRS 1857.BibliographyBoole's major contributions to logic available in republished form include George Boole: Investigation of the Laws of Thought, Dover Publications; George Boole: Laws of Thought, Open Court, and George Boole: Studies in Logic \& Probability, Open Court.1872, A Treatise on Differential Equations.Further ReadingW.Kneale, 1948, "Boole and the revival of logic", Mind 57:149.G.C.Smith (ed.), 1982, George Boole \& Augustus de Morgan. Correspondence 1842– 1864, Oxford University Press.—, 1985, George Boole: His Life and Work, McHale.E.T.Bell, 1937, Men of Mathematics, London: Victor Gollancz.KF -
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4 Briggs, Henry
SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology[br]b. February 1561 Warley Wood, Yorkshire, Englandd. 26 January 1630 Oxford, England[br]English mathematician who invented common, or Briggsian, logarithms and whose writings led to their general acceptance throughout Europe.[br]After education at Warley Grammar School, Briggs entered St John's College, Cambridge, in 1577 and became a fellow in 1588. Having been Reader of the Linacre Lecture in 1592, he was appointed to the new Chair in Geometry at Gresham House (subsequently Gresham College), London, in 1596. Shortly after, he concluded that the logarithms developed by John Napier would be much more useful if they were calculated to the decimal base 10, rather than to the base e (the "natural" number 2.71828…), a suggestion with which Napier concurred. Until the advent of modern computing these decimal logarithms were invaluable for the accurate calculations involved in surveying, navigation and astronomy. In 1619 he accepted the Savilian Chair in Geometry at Oxford University, having two years previously published the base 10 logarithms of 1,000 numbers. The year 1624 saw the completion of his monumental Arithmetica Logarithmica, which contained fourteen-figure logarithms of 30,000 numbers, together with their trigonometric sines to fifteen decimal places and their tangents and secants to ten places![br]Bibliography1617, Logarithmorum Chilias Primi (the first published reference to base 10 logarithms). 1622, A Treatise of the North West Passage to the South Sea: Through the Continent ofVirginia and by Fretum Hudson.1633, Arithmetica Logarithmica, Gouda, the Netherlands; pub. in 1633 as Trigonmetria Britannica, London.Further ReadingE.T.Bell, 1937, Men of Mathematics, London: Victor Gollancz. See also Burgi, Jost.KF -
5 congak
men-congak raise o.'s head, hold o, 's head high. 2 calculate in o.'s head. 3 dictate mathematics problems. -
6 meno
1. adv lesssuperlativo leastmathematics minusil meno possibile as little as possibledi meno at leasta meno che unlessper lo meno at leastsono le sei meno un quarto it's a quarter to sixsempre meno less and lessfare a meno di qualcosa do without somethingvenir meno a qualcuno forze desert someonevenir meno alla parola data not keep one's word2. prep except* * *meno avv.compar.1 (in minor quantità o grado) less; not so... (as); not as... (as): dovresti lavorare (di) meno e riposare di più, you should work less and rest more; il viaggio di ritorno mi è sembrato meno lungo, the journey back didn't seem so long (to me); quest'anno ha piovuto (di) meno, it hasn't rained so much this year; non per questo è meno intelligente, he is no less intelligent for that // più o meno, poco più poco meno, more or less // chi più chi meno, more or less (o some more some less): tutti hanno contribuito, chi più chi meno, al buon esito dell'iniziativa, everyone more or less contributed to the success of the venture (o everyone contributed to the success of the venture, some more some less) // né più né meno, just, exactly: gli ho detto né più né meno come la pensavo, I told him just (o exactly) how I felt about it; le cose sono andate né più né meno così, that's exactly what happened2 (nel compar. di minoranza) less... (than); not so... (as), not as... (as): l'argento è meno prezioso dell'oro, silver is less precious than gold (o silver isn't as precious as gold); lui non è meno studioso di te, he studies just as much as you do (o he studies no less than you do); oggi è meno freddo di ieri, it isn't as cold today as it was yesterday (form. it is less cold than yesterday); il traffico era meno intenso del solito, the traffic wasn't as heavy as usual (o was less heavy than usual); è andata meno bene del previsto, it didn't go as well as expected3 (correl.) (quanto) meno... (tanto) meno: the less... the less: meno si lavora, meno si lavorerebbe, the less you work, the less you feel like working; meno studi, meno impari, the less you study, the less you learn4 (nel superl. di minoranza) the least; (fra due) the less: tra tutte le conferenze, questa è stata la meno interessante, of all the lectures, this was the least interesting; la meno preparata delle due squadre, the less fit of the (two) teams; ho intenzione di scegliere la macchina che costa meno, I'm going to choose the car that costs the least (o the cheapest car); cerca di affaticarti il meno possibile, try to tire yourself as little as possible5 (con valore di no) not: fammi sapere se verrai o meno, let me know whether or not you're coming; mi domando se valga la pena o meno di accettare, I wonder whether or not it's worth accepting; mi hanno accreditato mille euro, meno le spese bancarie, my account was credited with one thousand euros, minus bank charges6 (mat.) minus: sette meno tre è uguale a quattro, seven minus three is four (o three from seven leaves four) // la temperatura è meno due, the temperature is two degrees below zero // ci sono cinque euro in meno, di meno, (mancano cinque euro) there's five euros missing; ho speso dieci euro in meno, I spent ten euros less; uno di meno!, one less!; non eravamo in meno di otto, there were no less than eight of us // se avessi vent'anni di meno!, if only I were twenty years younger! // sono le otto meno cinque, it's five to eight◆ prep. (tranne) but, except: c'erano tutti meno loro, everyone was there except (o but) them; il museo è aperto tutti i giorni meno il lunedì, the museum is open every day but (o except) Monday; ho pensato a tutto meno che a fare i biglietti, I saw to everything except the tickets.◆ FRASEOLOGIA: tanto meno, ancora meno, even less: non ho accettato finora, tanto meno accetterei adesso, I haven't accepted so far, and now I've got even less reason to accept // meno che mai, men che meno, let alone: non sa parlare l'italiano, meno che mai l'inglese, he can't even speak Italian, let alone English // quanto meno, (perlomeno) at least: avresti potuto quanto meno farmi una telefonata, you could at least have phoned me // fare a meno di qlcu., di (fare) qlco., to do without s.o., (doing) sthg.: non potrei fare a meno di lui, I couldn't do without him; non potei fare a meno di ridere, I couldn't help laughing // venire meno, (venire a mancare) to fail; (svenire) to faint; mi venne meno il coraggio, my courage failed me; a quella notizia, mi sentii venire meno, I felt as if I was going to faint when I heard the news // venire meno alla parola data, to break one's word // essere da meno (di qlcu.), to be less than s.o. // senza meno, (region.) certainly, for sure: le telefonerò domani senza meno, I'll phone her tomorrow for sure; a meno che, a meno di, unless: lo spettacolo si terrà all'aperto, a meno che non piova, the performance will take place outdoors, unless it rains; non farei mai una cosa simile, a meno di non esservi costretto, I would never do such a thing, unless I was forced to // niente meno → nientedimeno // per lo meno → perlomeno.meno agg.compar.invar. less; not so much, not as much; (con s. pl.) fewer; not so many, not as many: c'è meno traffico sulle strade rispetto a ieri, there's less traffic on the roads than yesterday (o there isn't as much traffic on the roads as yesterday); oggi c'è meno gente in giro, there are fewer people (o there aren't so many people) about today; se prendi l'autostrada impiegherai meno tempo, it will take you less time (o it won't take you so long) if you use the motorway; c'erano meno italiani e più stranieri, there were fewer Italians and more foreigners; ha meno amici che nemici, he has fewer friends than enemies; loro hanno meno preoccupazioni di noi, they have fewer worries than we have (o they haven't so many worries as we have); questa volta hai fatto meno errori, this time you made fewer mistakes (o you didn't make so many mistakes) // meno storie!, stop making a fuss! // meno male, thank goodness; just as well; it's a good job (o a good thing); not so bad: meno male che non si è fatto niente, thank goodness he wasn't hurt; meno male che siete arrivati in tempo, it's a good job you arrived in time; meno male, poteva andar peggio!, not so bad, things could have been worse!◆ s.m.1 (con valore di compar.) less, not as much: ho fatto meno di quanto avrei voluto, I did less than (o I didn't do as much as) I would have liked; ha mangiato meno del solito, he ate less than usual (o he didn't eat as much as usual); meno di così non si poteva dare, you couldn't give less than that; si accontenterebbe di molto meno, he would be satisfied with much less; oggi ho dovuto aspettare molto meno, today I didn't have nearly so long to wait (o I had much less to wait); ci vorranno non meno di tre ore per arrivare, it will take no less than three hours to get there; finirò il lavoro in meno di un mese, I shall finish the job in less than a month; arriverà tra non meno di due settimane, he won't be here for a fortnight // a meno, per meno, (a minor prezzo) for less (o cheaper): vendere, acquistare per meno, to sell, to purchase for less // in men che non si dica, in less than no time2 (con valore di superl.) the least; as little as: questo è il meno che tu possa fare, that's the least you can do; era il meno che gli potesse capitare, it was the least that could happen to him; vorrei spendere il meno possibile, I'd like to spend as little as possible // parlare del più e del meno, to talk of this and that // quando meno ci si pensa..., when you least expect...3 (mat.) minus: il segno del meno, the minus sign4 pl.: i meno, (la minoranza) the minority; i deputati che votarono a favore della proposta di legge erano i meno, the MP s who voted in favour of the bill were in the minority.* * *['meno]1. avv1) lessè meno alto di suo fratello/di quel che pensavo — he is not as tall as his brother/as I thought, he is less tall than his brother/than I thought
ha due anni meno di me — he's two years younger than me
meno ne discutiamo, meglio è — the less we talk about it, the better
deve avere non meno di trent'anni — he must be at least thirty
andare all'università diventa sempre meno facile — it's getting less and less easy to go to university
2) (con senso superlativo) least3) (sottrazione) Mat minus, less5 meno 2 — 5 minus 2, 5 take away 2
sono le otto meno un quarto — it's a quarter to eight Brit o of eight Am
mi hai dato due carte di meno — you gave me two cards too few
eh, se avessi dieci anni di meno! — oh, if only I were ten years younger!
ho una sterlina in meno — I am one pound short
ci sono meno 25° — it's minus 25°, it is 25° below (zero)
4)non è da meno di lui — she is (every bit) as good as he isnon voglio essere da meno di lui — I don't want to be outdone by him
meno di — to do o manage withoutse non c'è zucchero ne faremo a meno — if there isn't any sugar we'll do without
non ho potuto fare a meno di ridere — I couldn't help laughing
in
men che non si dica — in less than no time, quick as a flashmeno gli inglesi — least of all the Englishfammi sapere se verrai o meno — let me know if you are coming or not
meno poteva avvertire — he could at least have let us knownon mi piace come scrive e tanto meno come parla — I don't like the way he writes let alone the way he talks
2. agg inv(acqua, lavoro, soldi) less, (persone, libri, errori) fewermeno bambini ci sono, meglio è — the fewer children there are the better
3. sm inv1)il meno — the leastera il meno che ti potesse capitare — (rimprovero) you were asking for it
parlare del più e del meno — to talk about this and that
i
meno — (la minoranza) the minority2) Mat minus (sign)4. prep(fuorché, eccetto che) except (for)meno uno — all but one* * *['meno] 1.1) (in un comparativo di minoranza) less2) (con un avverbio) less3) (con un verbo) lessguadagno meno di lei — I earn less than she does, I don't earn as much as she does
meno se ne parla, meglio è — the less said about that, the better
meno esco, meno ho voglia di uscire — the less I go out, the less I feel like going out
4) (con un numerale) lessmeno di due ore — under o less than two hours
non troverai niente a meno di 200 euro — you won't find anything for less than o for under 200 euros
(il) meno, (la) meno, (i) meno, (le) meno — the least
6) (in correlazione con "più")né più, né meno — neither more, nor less
centimetro più, centimetro meno — give or take an inch (or two)
7) (con valore di negazione) not8) da menoho fatto una torta anche io per non essere da meno — I made a cake as well, just to keep up
10) a meno di short of11) a meno che unless12) sempre meno less and less13) meno male thank goodness14) quanto meno, per lo meno at least15) tanto menonon l'ho mai visto, tanto meno gli ho parlato — I've never seen him, much less spoken to him
era troppo malata per stare in piedi, tanto meno per camminare — she was too ill to stand let alone walk
16) più o meno more or less, about, roughly, round about2."ti è piaciuto il film?" - "più o meno" — "did you enjoy the film?" - "sort of"
aggettivo invariabile1) (in un comparativo di minoranza) less, fewer2) (con valore pronominale) less, fewer3.1) (in una sottrazione) from, minus20 meno 5 fa 15 — 5 from 20 leaves 15, 20 minus 5 is 15, 20 take away 5 is 15
2) (tranne, eccetto) but, besides, except4.sostantivo maschile invariabile1) (la cosa, quantità minore) least2) mat. minus (sign)••parlare del più e del meno — to talk about this and that, to shoot the breeze AE
in men che non si dica — before you could say knife, in the bat o wink of an eye, in (less than) no time
••fare a meno di — to manage o do without, to dispense with [auto, servizi]
Note:Meno è usato principalmente come avverbio e come aggettivo, anche con valore pronominale. - Come avverbio, si rende con less quando introduce un comparativo di minoranza e con (the) least quando introduce un superlativo di minoranza: less è seguito da than, the least è seguito da of oppure in (se ci si riferisce a un luogo o un gruppo). Gli esempi nella voce mostrano anche che il comparativo di minoranza è spesso sostituito in inglese dalla variante negativa di un comparativo di uguaglianza: ho meno esperienza di te = I have less experience than you, oppure: I don't have as much experience as you; la mia stanza è meno grande della tua = my bedroom isn't as big as yours. - Come aggettivo, in inglese standard meno si traduce con less davanti e al posto di sostantivi non numerabili ( meno denaro = less money; ne ho meno di ieri = I have less than yesterday), mentre davanti e al posto di sostantivi plurali si usa fewer con valore comparativo ( meno studenti = fewer students; non meno di = no fewer than) e (the) fewest con valore superlativo ( ho fatto meno errori di tutti = I made the fewest mistakes; ne ha dati meno di tutti = he gave the fewest); tuttavia, nel linguaggio parlato less tende a sostituire fewer anche con riferimento plurale: meno persone = less people. - Per altri esempi e per l'uso di meno come preposizione e sostantivo, si veda la voce qui sotto* * *meno/'meno/Meno è usato principalmente come avverbio e come aggettivo, anche con valore pronominale. - Come avverbio, si rende con less quando introduce un comparativo di minoranza e con (the) least quando introduce un superlativo di minoranza: less è seguito da than, the least è seguito da of oppure in (se ci si riferisce a un luogo o un gruppo). Gli esempi nella voce mostrano anche che il comparativo di minoranza è spesso sostituito in inglese dalla variante negativa di un comparativo di uguaglianza: ho meno esperienza di te = I have less experience than you, oppure: I don't have as much experience as you; la mia stanza è meno grande della tua = my bedroom isn't as big as yours. - Come aggettivo, in inglese standard meno si traduce con less davanti e al posto di sostantivi non numerabili ( meno denaro = less money; ne ho meno di ieri = I have less than yesterday), mentre davanti e al posto di sostantivi plurali si usa fewer con valore comparativo ( meno studenti = fewer students; non meno di = no fewer than) e (the) fewest con valore superlativo ( ho fatto meno errori di tutti = I made the fewest mistakes; ne ha dati meno di tutti = he gave the fewest); tuttavia, nel linguaggio parlato less tende a sostituire fewer anche con riferimento plurale: meno persone = less people. - Per altri esempi e per l'uso di meno come preposizione e sostantivo, si veda la voce qui sotto.I avverbio1 (in un comparativo di minoranza) less; un po' meno a little less; è meno alto di Tim he is not as tall as Tim; è meno complicato di quanto pensi it's less complicated than you think2 (con un avverbio) less; meno spesso less often; meno del solito less than usual; canta meno bene di prima she doesn't sing as well as she used to3 (con un verbo) less; l'argento costa meno dell'oro silver costs less than gold; costa meno prendere il treno it works out cheaper to take the train; dovresti lavorare (di) meno you should work less; guadagno meno di lei I earn less than she does, I don't earn as much as she does; meno se ne parla, meglio è the less said about that, the better; meno esco, meno ho voglia di uscire the less I go out, the less I feel like going out; è lui quello che lavora meno di tutti he's the one who works the least of all4 (con un numerale) less; meno di 50 less than 50; meno di due ore under o less than two hours; un po' meno di 15 cm just under 15 cm; i bambini con meno di sei anni children under six; non troverai niente a meno di 200 euro you won't find anything for less than o for under 200 euros5 (in un superlativo relativo) (il) meno, (la) meno, (i) meno, (le) meno the least; le famiglie meno ricche the least wealthy families; era la meno soddisfatta di tutti she was the least satisfied of all; è quello pagato meno bene fra i due he's the least well-paid of the two; quello mi piace meno di tutti I like that one (the) least; sono quelli che ne hanno meno bisogno they are the ones who need it (the) least; proprio quando meno me l'aspettavo just when I least expected it6 (in correlazione con "più") né più, né meno neither more, nor less; centimetro più, centimetro meno give or take an inch (or two); né più né meno che nothing less than7 (con valore di negazione) not; che lo voglia o meno whether he's willing or not; non ha deciso se firmare o meno he hasn't decided whether to sign (or not)8 da meno è un gran bugiardo e suo fratello non è da meno he's a liar and his brother isn't any better; ho fatto una torta anche io per non essere da meno I made a cake as well, just to keep up9 di meno, in meno se avessi 20 anni di meno! I wish I were 20 years younger! ho preso 30 euro in meno di stipendio my wages are 30 euros short10 a meno di short of11 a meno che unless12 sempre meno less and less13 meno male thank goodness; meno male che it's a good thing that; meno male che è impermeabile! it's just as well it's waterproof! meno male che ci sono andato! it was lucky for me that I went!14 quanto meno, per lo meno at least15 tanto meno non l'ho mai visto, tanto meno gli ho parlato I've never seen him, much less spoken to him; era troppo malata per stare in piedi, tanto meno per camminare she was too ill to stand let alone walk16 più o meno more or less, about, roughly, round about; più o meno alto come te about your height; è successo più o meno qui it happened round about here; "ti è piaciuto il film?" - "più o meno" "did you enjoy the film?" - "sort of"; più o meno nello stesso modo in much the same way; la canzone fa più o meno così the song goes something like this1 (in un comparativo di minoranza) less, fewer; ho meno libri di te I have fewer books than you; ho meno caldo adesso I feel cooler now; ci è voluto meno tempo di quanto pensassimo it took less time than we expected2 (con valore pronominale) less, fewer; non meno di no fewer than; ne ho meno di te I have less than you; ha venduto meno di tutti he sold the fewestIII preposizione1 (in una sottrazione) from, minus; quanto fa 20 meno 8? what is 20 minus 8? 20 meno 5 fa 15 5 from 20 leaves 15, 20 minus 5 is 15, 20 take away 5 is 152 (tranne, eccetto) but, besides, except3 (per indicare l'ora) le sei meno dieci ten to six4 (per indicare una temperatura) meno 10 minus 10IV m.inv.1 (la cosa, quantità minore) least; questo è il meno that's the least of it; fare il meno possibile to do as little as possible2 mat. minus (sign)parlare del più e del meno to talk about this and that, to shoot the breeze AE; in men che non si dica before you could say knife, in the bat o wink of an eye, in (less than) no time; fare a meno di to manage o do without, to dispense with [auto, servizi]; non posso farne a meno I can't help it. -
7 Artificial Intelligence
In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, EventuallyJust as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)5) Problems in Machine Intelligence Arise Because Things Obvious to Any Person Are Not Represented in the ProgramMany problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)[AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract FormThe basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory FormationIt is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular ContextsEven if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial IntelligenceThe primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary PropositionsIn artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence
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8 autant
autant [otɑ̃]adverb• intelligent, il l'est autant que vous he's just as intelligent as you are• elle ne pensait pas qu'il aurait autant de succès she never thought that he would have so much success• vous invitez toujours autant de gens ? do you always invite so many people?d. ( = la même chose avec "en") the samee. ( = il est préférable de) autant prévenir la police it would be as well to tell the police• autant pour moi ! my mistake!• il a gagné, cela ne signifie pas pour autant qu'il est le meilleur he won, but that doesn't mean that he's the best► autant... autant• autant il aime les chiens, autant il déteste les chats he likes dogs as much as he hates cats► autant que possible as much as possible• je voudrais éviter les grandes routes autant que possible I'd like to avoid the major roads as much as possible► d'autant plus• c'est d'autant plus dangereux qu'il n'y a pas de parapet it's all the more dangerous since there is no parapet• écrivez-lui, d'autant (plus) que je ne suis pas sûr qu'il vienne demain you'd better write to him, especially as I'm not sure if he's coming tomorrow• d'autant plus ! all the more reason!* * *otɑ̃
1.
il n'a jamais autant neigé/plu — it has never snowed/rained so much
essaie or tâche d'en faire autant — try and do the same
autant je comprends leur chagrin, autant je déteste leur façon de l'étaler — as much as I understand their grief, I hate the way they parade it
j'aime autant te dire qu'il n'était pas content — believe me, he wasn't pleased
autant dire que la réunion est annulée — in other words the meeting is cancelled [BrE]
autant que tu peux — ( comme tu peux) as much as you can; ( aussi longtemps que tu peux) as long as you can
2.
autant de déterminant indéfini1) ( avec un nom dénombrable)autant de cadeaux/de gens — so many presents/people
autant d'énergie/d'argent — so much energy/money
3.
d'autant locution adverbialecela va permettre de réduire d'autant les coûts de production — this will allow an equivalent reduction in production costs
les salaires ont augmenté de 3% mais les prix ont augmenté d'autant — salaries have increased by 3% but prices have increased by just as much
d'autant moins — even less, all the less
d'autant plus heureux/grand que — all the happier/bigger as
4.
pour autant locution adverbiale gén for all that
5.
pour autant que locution conjonctive* * *otɑ̃ adv1) (absolu) (quantité) so much, (nombre) so manyJe ne veux pas autant de gâteau. — I don't want so much cake.
Je n'ai jamais vu autant de monde. — I've never seen so many people.
n'importe qui aurait pu en faire autant — anyone could have done the same, anyone could have done as much
2) (comparatif) (quantité) as much, (nombre) as manyautant que (quantité) — as much as, (nombre) as many as
J'ai autant d'argent que toi. — I've got as much money as you have.
J'ai autant d'amis que lui. — I've got as many friends as he has.
Il est fort autant que courageux. — He is as strong as he is brave.
Il va pleuvoir: autant partir. — It's going to rain: we may as well leave.
autant dire que... — one might as well say that...
Il n'est pas découragé pour autant. — Even so he's not discouraged.
d'autant — accordingly, in proportion
Elle est d'autant plus déçue qu'il le lui avait promis. — She's all the more disappointed since he had promised her.
C'est d'autant moins pratique pour lui qu'il doit changer deux fois de train. — It's even less convenient for him since he has to change trains twice.
* * *A adv comment peut-il manger/dormir autant? how can he eat/sleep so much?; il n'a jamais autant neigé/plu it has never snowed/rained so much; je t'aime toujours autant I still love you as much; essaie or tâche d'en faire autant try and do the same; je ne peux pas en dire autant I can't say the same; triste autant que désagréable as sad as it is unpleasant; autant elle est gentille, autant il peut être désagréable she's as nice as he's unpleasant; autant je comprends leur chagrin, autant je déteste leur façon de l'étaler as much as I understand their grief, I hate the way they parade it; cela m'agace autant que toi it annoys me as much as it does you; ma mère autant que mon père déteste voyager my mother hates travellingGB as much as my father does; je les hais tous autant qu'ils sont I hate every single one of them; je me moque de ce que vous pensez tous autant que vous êtes I don't care what any of you think; j'aime autant partir tout de suite I'd rather leave straight away, I'd just as soon leave straight away; j'aime autant ne pas attendre pour le faire I'd rather not wait to do it, I'd just as soon not wait to do it; j'aime autant te dire qu'il n'était pas content believe me, he wasn't pleased; autant dire que la réunion est annulée in other words the meeting is cancelledGB; autant parler à un mur you might as well be talking to the wall; donnez-m'en encore autant give me as much again; tout autant just as much; il risque tout autant de faire he equally runs the risk of doing; autant que faire se peut as much as possible, as far as possible; autant que je sache as far as I know; autant que tu peux/veux (comme tu peux/veux) as much as you can/like; (aussi longtemps que tu peux/veux) as long as you can/like; tu peux changer le motif autant que tu veux you can change the pattern as much as you like.B autant de dét indéf1 ( avec un nom dénombrable) autant de cadeaux/de gens/d'erreurs so many presents/people/mistakes; leurs promesses sont autant de mensonges their promises are just so many lies; il les considère comme autant de clients potentiels he considers them as so many potential customers; il y a autant de femmes que d'hommes there are as many women as (there are) men; je n'ai pas eu autant d'ennuis que lui I haven't had as many problems as he has;2 ( avec un nom non dénombrable) autant d'énergie/d'argent/de temps so much energy/money/time; autant de gentillesse/stupidité such kindness/stupidity; ce sera toujours autant de fait that'll be done at least; je n'ai pas eu autant de chance que lui I haven't had as much luck as he has, I haven't been as lucky as he has; je n'ai plus autant de force qu'avant I'm not as strong as I used to be; autant à boire qu'à manger as much to drink as to eat; je n'avais jamais vu autant de monde I'd never seen so many people; il y a autant de place qu'ici there's as much space as there is here; il a révélé autant de gentillesse que d'intelligence he showed as much kindness as he did intelligence.C d'autant loc adv cela va permettre de réduire d'autant les coûts de production this will allow an equivalent reduction in production costs; les salaires ont augmenté de 3% mais les prix ont augmenté d'autant salaries have increased by 3% but prices have increased by just as much; les informations seront décalées d'une heure et les émissions suivantes retardées d'autant the news will be broadcast an hour later than scheduled as will the following programmesGB; d'autant plus! all the more reason!; d'autant mieux! all the better, even better!; d'autant moins even less, all the less; d'autant moins contrôlable even less easy to control; il pouvait d'autant moins ignorer les faits que… it was all the more difficult for him to ignore the facts since…; n'étant pas jalouse moi-même je le comprends d'autant moins not being jealous myself I find it even harder to understand; d'autant que all the more so as; il était furieux d'autant (plus) que personne ne l'avait prévenu he was all the more furious as nobody had warned him; d'autant plus heureux/grand que… all the happier/bigger as…; une histoire d'autant moins vraisemblable que… a story all the more implausible since…; la mesure a été d'autant mieux admise que… the measure was all the more welcome since…D pour autant loc adv gén for all that; ( en début de phrase) but for all that; sans pour autant faire without necessarily doing; je ne vais pas abandonner pour autant I'm not going to give up for all that; sans pour autant tout modifier without necessarily changing everything; sans pour autant que les loyers augmentent without rents necessarily increasing.E pour autant que loc conj pour autant que as far as; pour autant qu'ils se mettent d'accord if they agree; pour autant que je sache as far as I know.[otɑ̃] adverbe1. [marquant l'intensité]pourquoi attendre autant? why wait that ou so long?a. [que tu l'aimes] I like him as much as you dob. [que je t'aime] I like him as much as you2. [indiquant la quantité]3. (avec 'en') [la même chose]il a fini son travail, je ne peux pas en dire autant he's finished his work, I wish I could say as much ou the same4. (avec l'infinitif) [mieux vaut]autant revenir demain I/you etc. might as well come back tomorrow5. [mieux]6. (Belgique) [tant]————————autant... autant locution correlativeautant il est cultivé, autant il est nul en mathématiques he's highly educated, but he's no good at mathematicsautant j'aime le vin, autant je déteste la bière I hate beer as much as I love wine————————autant de locution déterminante[avec un nom non comptable] as much[avec un nom comptable] as manyil y a autant d'eau/de sièges ici there's as much water/there are as many seats hereautant d'hommes, autant d'avis as many opinions as there are men(c'est) autant de gagné ou de pris at least that's something————————autant dire locution adverbialej'ai été payé 300 euros, autant dire rien I was paid 300 euros, in other words a pittance————————autant dire que locution conjonctivetrois heures dans le four, autant dire que le poulet était carbonisé! after three hours in the oven, needless to say the chicken was burnt to a cinder!l'ambassade ne répond plus, autant dire que tout est perdu the embassy's phones are dead, a sure sign that all is lost————————autant que locution conjonctive1. [dans la mesure où] as far as2. [il est préférable que]autant que je vous le dise tout de suite... I may as well tell you straightaway...————————d'autant locution adverbialesi le coût de la vie augmente de 2 %, les salaires seront augmentés d'autant if the cost of living goes up by 2%, salaries will be raised accordinglycela augmente d'autant mon intérêt pour cette question it makes me all the more interested in this questionsi l'on raccourcit la première étagère de cinq centimètres, il faudra raccourcir la deuxième d'autant if we shorten the first shelf by five centimetres, we'll have to shorten the second one by the same amount————————d'autant mieux locution adverbialepars à la campagne, tu te reposeras d'autant mieux you'll have a much better rest if you go to the country————————d'autant mieux que locution conjonctiveil a travaillé d'autant mieux qu'il se sentait encouragé he worked all the better for feeling encouraged————————d'autant moins que locution conjonctiveje le vois d'autant moins qu'il est très occupé en ce moment I see even less of him now that he's very busy————————d'autant moins... que locution correlativeelle est d'autant moins excusable qu'on l'avait prévenue what she did is all the less forgivable as she'd been warned————————d'autant plus locution adverbiale————————d'autant plus que locution conjonctiveil vous écoutera d'autant plus qu'il vous connaît he'll listen to you, especially as ou particularly as he knows youd'autant plus... que locution correlativec'est d'autant plus stupide qu'il ne sait pas nager it's particularly ou all the more stupid given (the fact) that he can't swim————————d'autant que locution conjonctivec'est une bonne affaire, d'autant que le crédit est très avantageux it's a good deal, especially as the terms of credit are very advantageouspour autant locution adverbialela situation n'est pas perdue pour autant the situation isn't hopeless for all that, it doesn't necessarily mean all is lostil t'aime bien, mais il ne t'aidera pas pour autant just because he's fond of you (it) doesn't mean that he'll help youfais-le-lui remarquer sans pour autant le culpabiliser point it out to him, but don't make him feel guilty about it————————pour autant que locution conjonctive -
9 Philosophy
And what I believe to be more important here is that I find in myself an infinity of ideas of certain things which cannot be assumed to be pure nothingness, even though they may have perhaps no existence outside of my thought. These things are not figments of my imagination, even though it is within my power to think of them or not to think of them; on the contrary, they have their own true and immutable natures. Thus, for example, when I imagine a triangle, even though there may perhaps be no such figure anywhere in the world outside of my thought, nor ever have been, nevertheless the figure cannot help having a certain determinate nature... or essence, which is immutable and eternal, which I have not invented and which does not in any way depend upon my mind. (Descartes, 1951, p. 61)Let us console ourselves for not knowing the possible connections between a spider and the rings of Saturn, and continue to examine what is within our reach. (Voltaire, 1961, p. 144)As modern physics started with the Newtonian revolution, so modern philosophy starts with what one might call the Cartesian Catastrophe. The catastrophe consisted in the splitting up of the world into the realms of matter and mind, and the identification of "mind" with conscious thinking. The result of this identification was the shallow rationalism of l'esprit Cartesien, and an impoverishment of psychology which it took three centuries to remedy even in part. (Koestler, 1964, p. 148)It has been made of late a reproach against natural philosophy that it has struck out on a path of its own, and has separated itself more and more widely from the other sciences which are united by common philological and historical studies. The opposition has, in fact, been long apparent, and seems to me to have grown up mainly under the influence of the Hegelian philosophy, or, at any rate, to have been brought out into more distinct relief by that philosophy.... The sole object of Kant's "Critical Philosophy" was to test the sources and the authority of our knowledge, and to fix a definite scope and standard for the researches of philosophy, as compared with other sciences.... [But Hegel's] "Philosophy of Identity" was bolder. It started with the hypothesis that not only spiritual phenomena, but even the actual world-nature, that is, and man-were the result of an act of thought on the part of a creative mind, similar, it was supposed, in kind to the human mind.... The philosophers accused the scientific men of narrowness; the scientific men retorted that the philosophers were crazy. And so it came about that men of science began to lay some stress on the banishment of all philosophic influences from their work; while some of them, including men of the greatest acuteness, went so far as to condemn philosophy altogether, not merely as useless, but as mischievous dreaming. Thus, it must be confessed, not only were the illegitimate pretensions of the Hegelian system to subordinate to itself all other studies rejected, but no regard was paid to the rightful claims of philosophy, that is, the criticism of the sources of cognition, and the definition of the functions of the intellect. (Helmholz, quoted in Dampier, 1966, pp. 291-292)Philosophy remains true to its classical tradition by renouncing it. (Habermas, 1972, p. 317)I have not attempted... to put forward any grand view of the nature of philosophy; nor do I have any such grand view to put forth if I would. It will be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the history of "howlers" and progress in philosophy as the debunking of howlers. It will also be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the enterprise of putting forward a priori truths about the world.... I see philosophy as a field which has certain central questions, for example, the relation between thought and reality.... It seems obvious that in dealing with these questions philosophers have formulated rival research programs, that they have put forward general hypotheses, and that philosophers within each major research program have modified their hypotheses by trial and error, even if they sometimes refuse to admit that that is what they are doing. To that extent philosophy is a "science." To argue about whether philosophy is a science in any more serious sense seems to me to be hardly a useful occupation.... It does not seem to me important to decide whether science is philosophy or philosophy is science as long as one has a conception of both that makes both essential to a responsible view of the world and of man's place in it. (Putnam, 1975, p. xvii)What can philosophy contribute to solving the problem of the relation [of] mind to body? Twenty years ago, many English-speaking philosophers would have answered: "Nothing beyond an analysis of the various mental concepts." If we seek knowledge of things, they thought, it is to science that we must turn. Philosophy can only cast light upon our concepts of those things.This retreat from things to concepts was not undertaken lightly. Ever since the seventeenth century, the great intellectual fact of our culture has been the incredible expansion of knowledge both in the natural and in the rational sciences (mathematics, logic).The success of science created a crisis in philosophy. What was there for philosophy to do? Hume had already perceived the problem in some degree, and so surely did Kant, but it was not until the twentieth century, with the Vienna Circle and with Wittgenstein, that the difficulty began to weigh heavily. Wittgenstein took the view that philosophy could do no more than strive to undo the intellectual knots it itself had tied, so achieving intellectual release, and even a certain illumination, but no knowledge. A little later, and more optimistically, Ryle saw a positive, if reduced role, for philosophy in mapping the "logical geography" of our concepts: how they stood to each other and how they were to be analyzed....Since that time, however, philosophers in the "analytic" tradition have swung back from Wittgensteinian and even Rylean pessimism to a more traditional conception of the proper role and tasks of philosophy. Many analytic philosophers now would accept the view that the central task of philosophy is to give an account, or at least play a part in giving an account, of the most general nature of things and of man. (Armstrong, 1990, pp. 37-38)8) Philosophy's Evolving Engagement with Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive ScienceIn the beginning, the nature of philosophy's engagement with artificial intelligence and cognitive science was clear enough. The new sciences of the mind were to provide the long-awaited vindication of the most potent dreams of naturalism and materialism. Mind would at last be located firmly within the natural order. We would see in detail how the most perplexing features of the mental realm could be supported by the operations of solely physical laws upon solely physical stuff. Mental causation (the power of, e.g., a belief to cause an action) would emerge as just another species of physical causation. Reasoning would be understood as a kind of automated theorem proving. And the key to both was to be the depiction of the brain as the implementation of multiple higher level programs whose task was to manipulate and transform symbols or representations: inner items with one foot in the physical (they were realized as brain states) and one in the mental (they were bearers of contents, and their physical gymnastics were cleverly designed to respect semantic relationships such as truth preservation). (A. Clark, 1996, p. 1)Socrates of Athens famously declared that "the unexamined life is not worth living," and his motto aptly explains the impulse to philosophize. Taking nothing for granted, philosophy probes and questions the fundamental presuppositions of every area of human inquiry.... [P]art of the job of the philosopher is to keep at a certain critical distance from current doctrines, whether in the sciences or the arts, and to examine instead how the various elements in our world-view clash, or fit together. Some philosophers have tried to incorporate the results of these inquiries into a grand synoptic view of the nature of reality and our human relationship to it. Others have mistrusted system-building, and seen their primary role as one of clarifications, or the removal of obstacles along the road to truth. But all have shared the Socratic vision of using the human intellect to challenge comfortable preconceptions, insisting that every aspect of human theory and practice be subjected to continuing critical scrutiny....Philosophy is, of course, part of a continuing tradition, and there is much to be gained from seeing how that tradition originated and developed. But the principal object of studying the materials in this book is not to pay homage to past genius, but to enrich one's understanding of central problems that are as pressing today as they have always been-problems about knowledge, truth and reality, the nature of the mind, the basis of right action, and the best way to live. These questions help to mark out the territory of philosophy as an academic discipline, but in a wider sense they define the human predicament itself; they will surely continue to be with us for as long as humanity endures. (Cottingham, 1996, pp. xxi-xxii)10) The Distinction between Dionysian Man and Apollonian Man, between Art and Creativity and Reason and Self- ControlIn his study of ancient Greek culture, The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche drew what would become a famous distinction, between the Dionysian spirit, the untamed spirit of art and creativity, and the Apollonian, that of reason and self-control. The story of Greek civilization, and all civilizations, Nietzsche implied, was the gradual victory of Apollonian man, with his desire for control over nature and himself, over Dionysian man, who survives only in myth, poetry, music, and drama. Socrates and Plato had attacked the illusions of art as unreal, and had overturned the delicate cultural balance by valuing only man's critical, rational, and controlling consciousness while denigrating his vital life instincts as irrational and base. The result of this division is "Alexandrian man," the civilized and accomplished Greek citizen of the later ancient world, who is "equipped with the greatest forces of knowledge" but in whom the wellsprings of creativity have dried up. (Herman, 1997, pp. 95-96)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Philosophy
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10 i
вы (2 л. мн)* * *ye, you* * *III. præpa) ( om sted i videste forstand, område etc) in ( fx in the house, the garden, a shop, a bank, Yorkshire, England; in the newspapers, the rain, the air),( foran navne på byer: opfattet som område) in ( fx in London),( dog:) I have never been to London;b) ( om punkt, sted af ringe udstrækning, adresse etc: foran navne påmindre byer, især som punkt på rute el. når der tænkes på en bestemtinstitution i byen) at ( fx meet at a point; at Grasmere; live at No. 10; we stopped at Lincoln; he was at Oxford (dvs ved universitetetder));c) ( mål for bevægelse) to ( fx go to church, school, bed; a visit to London);d) ( ind i, ned i, ud i etc) into ( fx jump into the water, get into difficulties, rush into a room, go out into the rain);e) ( inde i) in, inside ( fx the house),F within;f) (på) on ( fx knock him on the head, sit on the grass ( men: a snake in the grass));g) ( om tidsrum) in ( fx in (the year) 1865; in the summer of 1984); h) ( om tidspunkt, også højtider) at ( fx at this moment, at Easter); i) ( om tidens varighed) for ( fx for three years, for several minutes),( i løbet af) during ( fx during (el. for) the last ten years),(se også sidst);j) ( om klokkeslæt) to ( fx five (minutes) to six),(se også halv);k) [ Udtryk][ om ugedage:][i mandags etc] last Monday etc, on Monday etc;l) [ Udtryk][ om datoer:][ den fjerde i tredje (, femte etc)] (on) the fourth of March (, May etc);m) ( samhørighedsforhold) of ( fx the University of Oxford, the events of 1914, professor of mathematics, teacher of English);(NB lecturer (, reader) in mathematics);n) ( gennem) on ( fx see it on television, hear it on the radio; talk to him on the telephone);o) (efter vb der betyder " gribe" etc) by ( fx take (, seize) him by the arm (, collar); pull her by the hair);( NB rive sig i håret tear one's hair);p) [ Udtryk][ i regning, mat.:][2 (op) i 14 er 7 (14:2 = 7)] 2 into 14 is 7 (14 ö 2 = 7);[ a i fjerde] a to the fourth (power);q) [ Udtryk][ andre tilfælde:][ i og for sig]( i sig selv) in itself ( fx it is not in itself a victory, but...),( egentlig) properly speaking ( fx he is not properly speaking an inventor),( på en måde) in a way ( fx it is in a way understandable),( i virkeligheden) actually ( fx it is actually a mistake);[ i ham har vi mistet en trofast ven] we have lost a faithful friend in him;[ skære sig i fingeren] cut one's finger;IV. adv in;[ med hul i] with a hole (in it);[ smække en dør i] slam a door (shut);{}i(et -'er) I, i;(se også prik). -
11 сильный
1) ( обладающий большой физической силой) strongси́льный челове́к — strong man
си́льные ру́ки — strong arms
си́льный пол — men; the rougher sex
2) ( имеющий сильное воздействие) powerfulси́льный уда́р — powerful / forceful / hard / heavy blow
си́льное землетрясе́ние — powerful earthquake
си́льный нарко́тик — powerful / strong drug
3) ( с большим запасом мощности) powerful, strongси́льный мото́р — powerful engine
си́льное госуда́рство — strong / powerful state / nation
4) (интенсивный, значительный) intense; strong; ( о гневе) violent, powerful; ( о жаре) fierce; (о буре, дожде, огне) heavyси́льный ве́тер — high wind
си́льный за́пах — strong smell
си́льная страсть — violent passion
си́льное впечатле́ние — strong impression
си́льное влия́ние — strong / powerful influence
5) (крепкий, стойкий) strongси́льная во́ля — strong will
си́льный ду́хом челове́к — person with a strong mind, person of fortitude
6) (знающий, умеющий) good, strong; (в пр.; сведущий) good (at)си́льный учени́к — good pupil
силён в матема́тике — good at mathematics; (his) forte is mathematics
в э́том де́ле я не силён — I'm not good at this; this is not a strong point of mine
7) ( внушительный) formidableси́льный сопе́рник — formidable opponent
8) ( впечатляющий) impressive, powerful; forcefulэ́то была́ си́льная речь — it was a powerful / forceful speech
••си́льные ми́ра сего́ — the powers that be
ну ты силён! прост. — wow!, isn't that cute of you!
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12 Ampère, André-Marie
SUBJECT AREA: Electricity[br]b. 22 Jan 1775 Lyon, Franced. 10 June 1836 Marseille, France[br]French physicist and mathematician who established laws and principles relating magnetism and electricity to each other.[br]Ampère was reputed to have mastered all the then-known mathematics by the age of 12. He became Professor of Physics and Chemistry at Bourg in 1801 and a professor of mathematics at the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris in 1809. Observing a demonstration in 1820 of Oersted's discovery that a magnetic needle was deflected when placed near a current-carrying wire, Ampère was inspired to investigate the subject of electricity, of which he had no previous experience. Within a week he had prepared the first of several important communications on his discoveries to the Academy of Sciences in Paris. Included was a new hypothesis formed on the basis of his experiments on the relation between electricity and magnetism. He investigated the forces exerted on each other by current-carrying conductors and the properties of a solenoid. His mathematical theory describing these phenomena provided the foundations for the development of electro-dynamics and his classic work Théorie mathématique des phénomènes électro-dynamiques was published in 1827.The name "ampere" was adopted to replace the name "weber" as a unit of current after Helmholtz proposed such a change in 1881.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsBibliography1827, Théorie mathématique des phénomènes électro-dynamiques, Paris; repub. 1958, Paris (his chief published work).Further ReadingP.Lenard, 1933, Great Men of Science, London, pp. 223–30 (provides a short account). C.C.Gillispie (ed.), 1970, Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. 1, New York, pp.139–46.GW -
13 rein
f; -, -en; südd., österr. casserole* * *purely (Adv.);(netto) net (Adj.);(sauber) clean (Adj.);(unvermischt) pure (Adj.)* * *≈ casserole* * *1) (free from guilt etc: a clear conscience.) clear2) mere3) (clean, especially morally: pure thoughts.) pure6) (pure; mere: the simple truth.) simple* * *[rain]f casserole* * *IAdverb (ugs.)II 1.rein mit dir! — in you go/come!
1) (unvermischt) pure2) (nichts anderes als) pure; sheeretwas aus reinem Trotz tun — do something out of sheer or pure contrariness
die reine Wahrheit sagen — tell the plain or unvarnished truth
es war eine reine Männersache — it was exclusively a men's affair
eine reine Arbeitergegend — a purely or entirely working-class district
der reinste Quatsch — (ugs.) pure or sheer or absolute nonsense
dein Zimmer ist der reinste Saustall — (derb) your room is a real pigsty
3) (meist geh.): (frisch, sauber) clean; fresh <clothes, sheet of paper, etc.>; pure, clean <water, air>; clear < complexion>; (fig.)jemanden/jemandes Namen rein waschen — (ugs.) clear somebody/somebody's name
sich rein waschen — (ugs.) cler oneself or one's name
etwas ins Reine schreiben — make a fair copy of something
etwas ins Reine bringen — clear something up; put something straight
2.mit jemandem/etwas ins Reine kommen — get things straightened out with somebody/get something sorted or straightened out
Adverb purelyrein zufällig — purely or quite by chance
rein gar nichts — (ugs.) absolutely nothing
* * *rein1A. adj1. pure ( auch CHEM, BIOL, LING, Seide, Wein, Alkohol und fig); (sauber) clean; (klar) auch Gewissen: clear; METALL unalloyed; (gereinigt) purified; (unverfälscht) unadulterated (auch fig); Haut: clear; Blatt Papier: clean, blank;reine Baumwolle pure ( oder 100%) cotton;reines Deutsch sprechen speak a pure German;reine und angewandte Mathematik pure and applied mathematics;Kants Kritik der Reinen Vernunft Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason;2. REL, Tier, Speise: clean;für Moslems ist Schweinefleisch nicht rein pork for Muslims is an unclean meat3. Gewinn: net, cleardas ist reiner Zufall that is sheer luck;reine Lüge downright ( oder barefaced) lie;eine reine Frechheit (a piece of) barefaced cheek (US nerve);reiner Unsinn/Wahnsinn sheer nonsense/madness;das ist reine Theorie that’s only ( oder simply) theory;eine reine Formalität a mere formality;der reine Hohn pure ( oder bitter) mockery;ein reiner Zufall a pure accident ( oder coincidence);reinste Freude sheer ( oder pure) joy;er ist der reinste Komiker he’s a real comedian;die reinste Komödie a regular comedydie reine Wahrheit the plain truth; JUR the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth;B. adv1. purely;rein pflanzlich purely vegetable; nur attr pure ( oder all) vegetable …; Essen: strictly vegetarian;rein pflanzliches Fett pure vegetable fat;aus rein naturwissenschaftlicher Sicht from a strictly scientific point of view2. umg (gänzlich) absolutely;rein unmöglich absolutely impossible;rein verrückt totally mad;aus rein persönlichen Gründen for purely personal reasons;etwas rein Persönliches a purely personal matter;es geht schon rein zeitlich nicht there simply isn’t (enough) time;etwas rein mechanisch tun do sth just mechanicallyC. substantivisch:ins Reine bringen clear up, sort out;mit jemandem ins Reine kommen get things straightened out with sb;(mit sich) ins Reine kommen straighten things out (for o.s.);etwas ins Reine schreiben make a fair copy of sthrein2 adv umgrein… im v umg1. → auch herein…2. → auch hinein…* * *IAdverb (ugs.)II 1.rein mit dir! — in you go/come!
1) (unvermischt) pure2) (nichts anderes als) pure; sheeretwas aus reinem Trotz tun — do something out of sheer or pure contrariness
die reine Wahrheit sagen — tell the plain or unvarnished truth
eine reine Arbeitergegend — a purely or entirely working-class district
der reinste Quatsch — (ugs.) pure or sheer or absolute nonsense
dein Zimmer ist der reinste Saustall — (derb) your room is a real pigsty
3) (meist geh.): (frisch, sauber) clean; fresh <clothes, sheet of paper, etc.>; pure, clean <water, air>; clear < complexion>; (fig.)jemanden/jemandes Namen rein waschen — (ugs.) clear somebody/somebody's name
sich rein waschen — (ugs.) cler oneself or one's name
etwas ins Reine bringen — clear something up; put something straight
2.mit jemandem/etwas ins Reine kommen — get things straightened out with somebody/get something sorted or straightened out
Adverb purelyrein zufällig — purely or quite by chance
rein gar nichts — (ugs.) absolutely nothing
* * *adj.absolute adj.chaste adj.clean adj.immaculate adj.pure adj.sheer adj.straight adj.unadulterated adj.uncorrupt adj.uncorrupted adj.undefiled adj. adv.chastely adv.immaculately adv.purely adv. -
14 rapport
rapport [ʀapɔʀ]1. masculine nouna. ( = lien, corrélation) connection• n'avoir aucun rapport avec or être sans rapport avec qch to have no connection with sth• je viens vous voir rapport à votre annonce (inf) I've come (to see you) about your advertisement► en rapport• être en rapport avec qn ( = en contact) to be in touch with sb• nous n'avons jamais été en rapport avec cette société we have never had any dealings with that company• mettre qn en rapport avec qn d'autre to put sb in touch with sb else► par rapport à ( = comparé à) in comparison with ; ( = en fonction de) in relation to ; ( = envers) with respect tob. ( = relation personnelle) relationship (à, avec with)• rapports sociaux/humains social/human relations• avoir or entretenir de bons/mauvais rapports avec qn to be on good/bad terms with sbd. ( = exposé, compte rendu) reporte. ( = revenu, profit) returnf. (Mathematics, technical) ratio2. compounds* * *ʀapɔʀ
1.
nom masculin1) ( lien) connection, linkfaire/établir le rapport entre — to make/to establish the connection ou link between
n'avoir aucun rapport avec — to have nothing to do with, to have no connection with
les deux événements sont sans rapport — the two events are unrelated ou unconnected
un emploi en rapport avec tes goûts — a job suited to ou that matches your interests
2) ( relations)rapports — relations ( entre between)
avoir or entretenir de bons/mauvais rapports avec quelqu'un — to be on good/bad terms with somebody
3) ( contact)être/se mettre en rapport avec quelqu'un — to be/to get in touch with somebody
4) ( point de vue)5) ( compte rendu) report6) Armée daily briefing ( with roll-call)les rapports — the winnings (de on)
être en plein rapport — [arbres, terres] to be in full yield
8) Mathématique, Technologie ratiole rapport hommes/femmes est de trois contre un — the ratio of men to women is three to one
bon/mauvais rapport qualité prix — good/poor value for money
2.
par rapport à locution prépositive1) ( comparé à) compared with2) ( en fonction de)le nombre de voitures par rapport au nombre d'habitants — the number of cars per head of the population
3) ( vis-à-vis de) with regard to, toward(s)l'attitude de la population par rapport à l'immigration — people's attitudes (pl) to immigration
•Phrasal Verbs:* * *ʀapɔʀ nm1) (= compte rendu) reportIl a écrit un rapport. — He wrote a report.
2) (= lien) connection, linkIl y a un rapport évident entre ces faits. — There's an obvious connection between these events., There's an obvious link between these events.
Je ne vois pas le rapport. — I don't see the connection.
par rapport à (= comparé à) — in relation to, (= à propos de) with regard to
avoir rapport à — to have something to do with, to concern
3) (= proportion) MATHÉMATIQUE, TECHNIQUE ratiole rapport prix/surface — the price/area ratio
4) (= relation) (entre personnes, pays) relationshipIls ont de bons rapports. — They have a good relationship.
5) (rapport sexuel) intercourse6) (= profit) yield, returndes obligations de bon rapport — bonds with a good return, bonds with a high yield
* * *A nm1 ( lien) connection, link; faire/établir le rapport entre to make/to establish the connection ou link between; avoir rapport à qch to have something to do with sth; être sans rapport avec to bear no relation to; n'avoir aucun rapport avec to have nothing to do with, to have no connection with; les deux événements sont sans rapport (entre eux) the two events are unrelated ou unconnected; il y a un rapport étroit entre ces deux phénomènes there is a close connection between the two phenomena; je ne vois pas le rapport! I don't see the connection!; il n'y a aucun rapport de parenté entre eux they're not related; un emploi/salaire en rapport avec mes qualifications a job/salary appropriate to ou that matches my qualifications; un emploi en rapport avec tes goûts a job suited to ou that matches your interests; il faut que la peine soit en rapport avec le délit the punishment must fit the crime; rapport de cause à effet relation of cause and effect; rapport à◑ about, concerning; je viens vous voir rapport à mon augmentation I'm coming to see you about my rise GB ou raise US;2 ( relations) rapports relations; rapport amicaux or d'amitié friendly relations; avoir or entretenir de bons/mauvais rapports avec qn to be on good/bad terms with sb; les rapports entre les deux pays sont tendus/amicaux relations between the two countries are strained/friendly; il a des rapports difficiles avec sa mère he has a difficult relationship with his mother; avoir des rapports○ euph to have intercourse ou sex;3 ( contact) être en rapport avec qn to be in touch with sb; nous sommes en rapport avec d'autres entreprises we have dealings with other companies; se mettre en rapport avec qn to get in touch with sb; mettre des gens en rapport to put people in touch with each other;4 ( point de vue) sous le rapport de from the point of view of; sous ce rapport in this respect; sous tous les rapports in every respect; il est bien sous tous (les) rapports he's a decent person in every way ou respect;5 ( compte rendu) report; rapport officiel official report; rapport de police/commission d'enquête police/select committee report; rapport confidentiel confidential report; rédiger un rapport to draw up a report;6 Mil daily briefing (with roll-call);7 ( rendement) return, yield; ( de pari) les rapports the winnings (de on); investissement d' un bon rapport investment that offers a good return or yield; produire un rapport de 4% to produce a return ou yield of 4%; immeuble de rapport block of flats GB ou apartment block US that is rented out; être en plein rapport [arbres, terres] to be in full yield;8 Math, Tech ratio; dans un rapport de 1 à 10 in a ratio of 1 to 10; le rapport hommes/femmes est de trois contre un the ratio of men to women is three to one; bon/mauvais rapport qualité prix good/poor value for money; changer de rapport Aut, Mécan to change gear.B par rapport à loc prép1 ( comparé à) compared with, in comparison with; le chômage a augmenté par rapport à l'an dernier unemployment increased compared with last year; il est généreux/petit par rapport à son frère he's generous/small compared with his brother; par rapport au dollar/mark against the dollar/German mark;2 ( en fonction de) le nombre de voitures par rapport au nombre d'habitants the number of cars in relation to the number of inhabitants; un angle de 40° par rapport à la verticale an angle of 40° to the vertical; un changement par rapport à la position habituelle du parti a change from the usual party line;3 ( vis-à-vis de) with regard to, toward(s); notre position par rapport à ce problème our position with regard to this problem; l'attitude de la population par rapport à l'immigration people's attitude toward(s) immigration.rapport d'engrenage Aut, Mécan gear ratio; rapport de force ( équilibre) balance of power; ( lutte) power struggle; ils veulent créer un rapport de force en leur faveur they want to tilt the balance of power in their favourGB; je rêve d'une relation sans rapport de force I dream of a relationship free of any power struggle; rapports sexuels sexual relations.[rapɔr] nom masculin1. [compte rendu - généralement] reportrapport détaillé item-by-item report, full rundownrapport financier annual (financial) report ou statementb. (figuré & humoristique) let's hear it then!2. [profit] profit3. [ratio] ratiorapport profit-ventes profit-volume ou profit-to-volume ratioa. [généralement] value for moneyn'avoir aucun rapport avec quelque chose to have no connection with ou to bear no relation to somethingson dernier album n'a aucun rapport avec les précédents her latest record is nothing like her earlier onesc'est sans rapport avec le sujet that's beside the point, that's irrelevantcette décision n'est pas sans rapport avec les récents événements this decision isn't totally unconnected with recent eventsrapport de forces: le rapport de forces entre les deux pays the balance of power between the two countries5. DROIT————————rapports nom masculin pluriel————————de rapport locution adjectivale→ link=immeuble immeubleen rapport avec locution prépositionnelle1. [qui correspond à] in keeping with2. [en relation avec]se mettre en rapport avec quelqu'un to get in touch ou contact with somebodypar rapport à locution prépositionnelle1. [en ce qui concerne] regardingon constate un retrait de l'euro par rapport aux autres monnaies européennes the euro has dropped sharply against other European currencies————————sous le rapport de locution prépositionnellesous tous (les) rapports locution adverbiale‘jeune homme bien sous tous rapports’ ‘respectable young man’ -
15 воспользоваться
1) General subject: avail of, avail oneself, avail oneself of (случаем, предложением), capitalize on, embrace (случаем, предложением), improve (случаем), partake (гостеприимством и т. п.; of), partake of (напр., гостеприимством), play (чем-либо), pounce (ошибкой, промахом и т. п.; upon), put to use, redeem, seize (случаем, предлогом), take advantage, take advantage (преимуществом), take advantage of, take hold, take hold of, use, use opportunity, avail of (чем-л.), make advantage of (чем-л.), take advantage of (чем-л.), take an advantage of (чем-л.), feed off (She feeds off her boyfriend's naivety to go out with other men. ; Many branches feed off customers' pursuit of wealth to launch more and more new products into the market.), exercise (an option), capitalise on, take2) Literal: make a draft on a fund (дружбой, хорошим отношением, доверием)3) Engineering: make use of, take into use, utilize4) Mathematics: be in service in, be used (up), be useful, be utilized, employ, exploit, invoke, make use5) Economy: profit by6) Australian slang: take on board (чем-л.)7) Diplomatic term: avail oneself of (ч-л), improve (чем-л.), take advantage of (чем-л.)8) Jargon: cash in on, ace (в своих целях, обычно обманным путем: a friend who aced me out of a good job)9) Business: improve, profit, capitalize (capitalize on the relatively low rent)10) Makarov: gain advantage, cash in -
16 звеньевой
1) Construction: lead man (designate lead men in each gang), gang leader -
17 после
1) General subject: after (day after day - день за днём), behind, beyond, eftsoons, epi, following (предлог. Напр.: Police are hunting for two men following a spate of robberies in the area.), later on, next, past, post (postwar послевоенный), since, since (того), subsequent to, then and there, there and then, in succession to, (и др.) in the wake (см. in the wake of), downstream of2) Bookish: ulteriorly3) Rare: baft4) Mathematics: after that (or this), further, later, next to, subsequently, then, thereafter, thereupon5) Business: as from6) Sakhalin A: in the wake of7) Makarov: after all, apres- [компонент сложных слов со значением после: apres-forty fashions - одежда для женщин старше сорока лет], ever since, on, since (какого-л. момента), upon8) oil&gas: downstream( from smth.) (в пневмо- или гидросистеме) -
18 allgemein
(abgek. allg.)I Adj.1. (alle[s] betreffend) general; (üblich) common; (umfassend) overall; stärker: universal; von allgemeinem Interesse of general interest; auf allgemeinen Wunsch by popular request ( oder demand); mit allgemeiner Billigung by common consent; allgemeine Zustimmung finden meet with general approval; allgemeines Mittel universal remedy; allgemeine Redensart generality; allgemeine Wahlen general election(s); allgemeines Wahlrecht universal suffrage; allgemeine Wehrpflicht universal conscription, compulsory military service; allgemeine Schulpflicht compusory education; Allgemeine Ortskrankenkasse (abgek. AOK) statutory health insurance company3. (ohne Details) Frage, Darstellung: general, generic; im Allgemeinen generally, in general; (im Ganzen) on the whole; das Allgemeine und das Besondere the general and the particular; vom Allgemeinen auf das Besondere schließen infer the particular from the general, instantiate (s. th. [general] in s.th. [special]); das ist mir viel zu allgemein that’s much too general for my tasteII Adv.1. in general, generally; es ist allgemein bekannt, dass... it’s a well-known fact that..., it is common knowledge that...; allgemein bildende Schulen etwa comprehensive schools, Am. ordinary public schools; allgemein gebrauchtes Wort (alltägliches) word in general use; allgemein gültig universally applicable ( oder valid), general rule; es ist allgemein üblich, dass man... it’s ( oder that’s) common practi|ce (Am. -se) to...; allgemein verbindlich generally binding; allgemein verbreitet widespread, popular; allgemein verständlich comprehensible, simple2. (Ggs. konkret, detailliert) generally; (oberbegrifflich) generically; allgemein anerkannt generally accepted; allgemein gesprochen generally speaking; allgemein gehalten general; allgemein gebrauchtes Wort (Ggs. speziell) word used in a general sense* * *generally (Adv.); common (Adj.); nationwide (Adj.); commonly (Adv.); overall (Adj.); universal (Adj.); general (Adj.)* * *ạll|ge|mein ['algə'main]1. adjgeneral; Ablehnung, Zustimmung auch common; Feiertag public; Regelungen, Wahlrecht universal; Wehrpflicht compulsory; (= öffentlich) public, generalim Allgemeinen — in general, generally
im allgeméínen Interesse — in the common interest, in the public interest
von allgeméínem Interesse — of general interest
auf allgeméínen Wunsch — by popular or general request
die allgeméíne Meinung — the general opinion, the generally held opinion, public opinion
das allgeméíne Wohl — the common good, (the) public welfare, the public good
allgeméínes Aufsehen erregen — to cause or create a sensation
die Diskussion darüber wurde allgeméín — a general discussion developed
2. adv(= überall, bei allen, von allen) generally; (= ausnahmslos von allen) universally; (= generell) generally, in the main, for the most part; (= nicht spezifisch) in general termsseine Thesen sind so allgeméín abgefasst, dass... — his theses are worded in such general terms that...
du kannst doch nicht so allgeméín behaupten, dass... — you can't make such a generalization and say that..., you can't generalize like that and say that...
seine Thesen sind so allgeméín abgefasst, dass... — his theses are worded in such general terms that...
du kannst doch nicht so allgeméín behaupten, dass... — you can't make such a generalization and say that..., you can't generalize like that and say that...
es ist allgeméín bekannt — it's common knowledge
es ist allgeméín üblich, etw zu tun — it's the general rule that we/they etc do sth, it's commonly or generally the practice to do sth
allgeméín verbindlich — generally binding
allgeméín verständlich (adjektivisch) — generally intelligible, intelligible to all; (adverbial) in a way intelligible to all
etw allgeméín verständlich ausdrücken — to express sth in a way which everyone can understand
allgeméín verbreitet — widespread
allgeméín zugänglich — open to all, open to the general public
* * *1) ((of a name, term etc) referring to several similar objects etc: `Furniture' is a generic term for chairs, tables etc.) generic2) (general; not detailed: We discussed the plans in broad outline.) broad3) (publicly owned: common property.) common4) (of, involving etc all, most or very many people, things etc: The general feeling is that he is stupid; His general knowledge is good although he is not good at mathematics.) general5) (covering a large number of cases: a general rule.) general6) (without details: I'll just give you a general idea of the plan.) general7) (usually; by most people; on the whole: He is generally disliked; He generally wins.) generally8) (amongst, or by, most people: He was popularly believed to have magical powers.) popularly9) (in general: Generally speaking, men are stronger than women.) generally speaking* * *all·ge·mein[ˈalgəˈmain]I. adj\allgemeine Feiertage national holidaysim \allgemeinen Interesse liegen [o sein] to be in everyone's interests [or in the common interest]von \allgemeinem Interesse sein to be of interest to everyone\allgemeine Vorschriften universal regulations, regulations applying to everyonedas \allgemeine Wahlrecht universal suffragedie \allgemeine Wehrpflicht military servicezur \allgemeinen Überraschung to everyone's surprisedas \allgemeine Wohl the common good\allgemeine Zustimmung finden/auf \allgemeine Ablehnung stoßen to meet with general approval/disapproval3. (nicht spezifisch) generaldie Frage war \allgemeiner Natur the question was of a rather general nature4.II. adv1. (allerseits, überall) generally\allgemein bekannt/üblich sein to be common knowledge/practice\allgemein gültig general, universally applicable\allgemein verbindlich generally binding\allgemein verbreitet widespread\allgemein verständlich intelligible to everybody\allgemein zugänglich sein to be open to the general public2. (nicht spezifisch) generallyder Vortrag war leider sehr \allgemein gehalten unfortunately the lecture was rather general [or lacked focus]eine \allgemein bildende Schule a school providing a general rather than specialized education* * *1.Adjektiv general; universal <conscription, suffrage>; universally applicable <law, rule>auf allgemeinen Wunsch — by popular or general request
im allgemeinen Interesse — in the common interest; in everybody's interest
2.im allgemeinen — in general; generally
1) generallyes ist allgemein bekannt, dass... — it is common knowledge that...
allgemein zugänglich — open to all or everybody
allgemein bildend — <school, course, etc.> providing a general or an all-round or (Amer.) all-around education
allgemein gültig — universally or generally applicable <law, rule>; universally or generally valid <law of nature, definition, thesis>
allgemein verständlich — comprehensible or intelligible to all postpos.
etwas allgemein verständlich erklären — explain something in a way comprehensible or intelligible to all
2) (oft abwertend): (unverbindlich) <write, talk, discuss, examine, be worded> in general terms* * *allgemein (abk allg.)A. adjvon allgemeinem Interesse of general interest;auf allgemeinen Wunsch by popular request ( oder demand);mit allgemeiner Billigung by common consent;allgemeine Zustimmung finden meet with general approval;allgemeines Mittel universal remedy;allgemeine Redensart generality;allgemeine Wahlen general election(s);allgemeines Wahlrecht universal suffrage;allgemeine Wehrpflicht universal conscription, compulsory military service;allgemeine Schulpflicht compusory education;2. (öffentlich) public;das allgemeine Wohl the common good, the public welfare3. (ohne Details) Frage, Darstellung: general, generic;im Allgemeinen generally, in general; (im Ganzen) on the whole;das Allgemeine und das Besondere the general and the particular;vom Allgemeinen auf das Besondere schließen infer the particular from the general, instantiate (s. th. [general] in sth [special]);das ist mir viel zu allgemein that’s much too general for my tasteB. adv1. in general, generally;es ist allgemein bekannt, dass … it’s a well-known fact that…, it is common knowledge that …;allgemein gebrauchtes Wort (alltägliches) word in general use;allgemein verbindlich generally binding;allgemein verbreitet widespread, popular;allgemein verständlich comprehensible, simpleallgemein anerkannt generally accepted;allgemein gesprochen generally speaking;allgemein gehalten general;allgemein gebrauchtes Wort (Ggs speziell) word used in a general sense* * *1.Adjektiv general; universal <conscription, suffrage>; universally applicable <law, rule>auf allgemeinen Wunsch — by popular or general request
im allgemeinen Interesse — in the common interest; in everybody's interest
2.im allgemeinen — in general; generally
1) generallyes ist allgemein bekannt, dass... — it is common knowledge that...
allgemein zugänglich — open to all or everybody
allgemein bildend — <school, course, etc.> providing a general or an all-round or (Amer.) all-around education
allgemein gültig — universally or generally applicable <law, rule>; universally or generally valid <law of nature, definition, thesis>
allgemein verständlich — comprehensible or intelligible to all postpos.
etwas allgemein verständlich erklären — explain something in a way comprehensible or intelligible to all
2) (oft abwertend): (unverbindlich) <write, talk, discuss, examine, be worded> in general terms* * *adj.abstract adj.common adj.general adj.generic adj.nationwide adj.public adj. adv.generally adv.generically adv.popularly adv.universally adv. präp.across the board expr. -
19 igualación
f.equalization, standardization.* * *1 (de cantidades) equalization; (del marcador) levelling2 (de un terreno) levelling3 (igualdad) equality■ la mujer aspira a la igualación de su capacidad laboral a la de los varones women aspire to equality of opportunities with men in the labour market* * *SF1) (=nivelación) [de suelo, césped] levelling, leveling (EEUU)la tendencia a la igualación de los precios — the tendency to balance prices, the tendency towards balancing prices
han ofrecido la igualación de los sueldos para todos — they have offered to give everybody the same salary
buscan la igualación de todos los ciudadanos ante la ley — they are seeking to make all citizens equal before the law
2) (Mat) equating* * *1) ( nivelación)2) (Mat) equating* * *1) ( nivelación)2) (Mat) equating* * *A(nivelación): para conseguir la igualación de los ingresos y los pagos to balance income and outgoingssu objetivo es la igualación de todos los ciudadanos its aim is to make all citizens equalB ( Mat) equating* * *igualación nf1. [de terreno] levelling;[de superficie] smoothing2. [de cantidades] equalizing;piden la igualación de salarios they are asking for pay parity* * *f:buscan la igualación de los derechos they are trying to achieve equal rights* * *igualación nf1) : equalization2) : leveling, smoothing3) : equating (in mathematics) -
20 plus
c black plus [ply]━━━━━━━━━4. conjunction━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━► Lorsque plus fait partie d'une locution comme d'autant plus, non... plus, reportez-vous aussi à l'autre mot.━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━1. <► ne... plus not any more• je ne reviendrai plus/plus jamais I won't/I'll never come back again• elle n'est plus très jeune she's not as young as she used to be► plus de + nom2. <a. (avec verbe) more━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━► Lorsque l'adjectif ou l'adverbe est court (une ou deux syllabes), son comparatif se forme généralement avec la terminaison er.━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━► Lorsque l'adjectif se termine par y, son comparatif est formé avec ier.━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━► Lorsque l'adjectif n'a qu'une syllabe brève et se termine par une seule consonne, cette consonne est doublée.━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━► Les mots de deux syllabes se terminant en ing, ed, s, ly forment leur comparatif avec more plutôt qu'en ajoutant la terminaison er.━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━► Attention aux comparatifs irréguliers.━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━► Lorsque l'adjectif ou l'adverbe est long (au moins trois syllabes), son comparatif se forme généralement avec more plutôt qu'en ajoutant la terminaison er.━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━d. (locutions)• il y aura plus de 100 personnes there will be more than or over 100 people• il roulait à plus de 100 km/h he was driving at more than or over 100km per hour► à plus ! (inf) see you later!► plus que + adjectif ou adverbe• j'en ai plus qu'assez ! I've had more than enough of this!► de plus ( = en outre) (en tête de phrase) moreover• c'est dangereux, de plus c'est illégal it's dangerous, and what's more, it's illegal• vous n'avez pas une chaise en plus ? you wouldn't have a spare chair?• en plus de cela on top of that► en plus + adjectif• il ressemble à sa mère, mais en plus blond he's like his mother only fairer• je cherche le même genre de maison en plus grand I'm looking for the same kind of house only bigger► ... et plus• il est compétent, mais ni plus ni moins que sa sœur he's competent, but neither more nor less so than his sister► plus... moins the more... the less• plus on le connaît, moins on l'apprécie the more you get to know him, the less you like him► plus... plus the more... the more• plus il en a, plus il en veut the more he has, the more he wants► plus ou moins ( = à peu près, presque) more or less• ils utilisent cette méthode avec plus ou moins de succès they use this method with varying degrees of success► qui plus est moreover3. <a. ► le plus + verbe mostb. ► le plus + adjectif ou adverbe court━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━► Lorsque l'adjectif ou l'adverbe est court (une ou deux syllabes), son superlatif se forme avec la terminaison est.━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━► Lorsque l'adjectif se termine par y, son superlatif se forme avec la terminaison iest.━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━► Lorsque l'adjectif n'a qu'une syllabe brève et se termine par une seule consonne, cette consonne est doublée.━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━► Les mots de deux syllabes se terminant en ing, ed, s, ly forment leur superlatif avec most plutôt qu'en ajoutant la terminaison est.━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━► Lorsque la comparaison se fait entre deux personnes ou deux choses, on utilise le comparatif au lieu du superlatif.━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━c. ► le plus + adjectif ou adverbe long━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━► Lorsque l'adjectif ou l'adverbe est long (au moins trois syllabes), son superlatif se forme avec the most plutôt qu'en ajoutant la terminaison est.━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━► Lorsque la comparaison se fait entre deux personnes ou deux choses, on utilise le comparatif au lieu du superlatif.━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━d. ► le plus de + nom the moste. (locutions)► le plus... possible• ça vaut 100 € au plus it's worth 100 euros at the most• il a trente ans, tout au plus he's thirty at most• rappelle-moi au plus vite call me back as soon as possible► des plus + adjectif4. <• tous les voisins, plus leurs enfants all the neighbours, plus their children5. <c black b. ( = avantage) plus• ici, parler breton est un plus indéniable being able to speak Breton is definitely a plus here━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━✦ The s of plus is never pronounced when used in negatives, eg il ne la voit plus. When used in comparatives the s is generally pronounced s, eg il devrait lire plus, although there are exceptions, notably plus preceding an adjective or adverb, eg plus grand, plus vite. Before a vowel sound, the comparative plus is pronounced z, eg plus âgé.* * *
I
1. ply, plys, plyz8 plus 3 égale 11 — 8 and ou plus 3 equals 11
plus 10° — plus 10°
2.
adverbe de comparaison1) ( modifiant un verbe) ( comparatif) more; ( superlatif)je ne peux pas faire plus — I can do no more, I can't do any more
plus j'y pense, moins je comprends — the more I think about it, the less I understand
qui plus est — furthermore, what's more
2) ( modifiant un adjectif) ( comparatif) more; ( superlatif) mostc'est le même modèle en plus petit — it's the same model, only smaller
3) ( modifiant un adverbe) ( comparatif) more; ( superlatif) mosttrois heures plus tôt/tard — three hours earlier/later
plus tu te coucheras tôt, moins tu seras fatigué — the earlier you go to bed, the less tired you'll be
3.
adverbe de négationelle ne fume plus — she doesn't smoke any more ou any longer, she no longer smokes
plus besoin de se presser — (colloq) there's no need to hurry any more
il n'y a plus d'œufs — there are no more eggs, there aren't any eggs left
j'entre dans le garage, plus de voiture! — I went into the garage, the car was gone!
plus que trois jours avant Noël! — only three days left ou to go until Christmas!
4.
plus de déterminant indéfini1) ( avec un nom dénombrable)plus tu mangeras de bonbons, plus tu auras de caries — the more sweets GB ou candy US you eat, the more cavities you'll have
il y en a plus d'un qui voudrait être à sa place — quite a few people would like to be in his/her position
je n'ai pas pris plus de crème que toi — I didn't take any more cream than you did, I took no more cream than you did
3) ( avec un numéral)il était déjà bien plus de onze heures — it was already well past ou after eleven o'clock
5.
au plus locution adverbiale at the most
6.
de plus locution adverbiale1) ( en outre) furthermore, moreover, what's more2) ( en supplément)une fois de plus — once more, once again
9% de plus — 9% more
7.
en plus locutionle même modèle avec le toit ouvrant en plus — the same model, only with a sunroof
les taxes en plus — plus tax, tax not included
II plysnom masculin invariable1) Mathématique plus2) (colloq) ( avantage) plus (colloq)
••
plus/le plus used in comparison (meaning more/the most) is pronounced [ply] before a consonant and [plyz] before a vowel. It is pronounced [plys] when at the end of a clause. In the plus de and plus que structures both [ply] and [plys] are generally usedplus used in ne plus (meaning no longer/not any more) is always pronounced [ply] except before a vowel, in which case it is pronounced [plyz]: il n'habite plus ici [plyzisi]1 adjectifs et adverbes courtsEn règle générale on ajoute ‘-er’ à la fin de l'adjectif/adverbe: plus grand/petit/simple = taller/smaller/simpler; plus longtemps/vite = longer/faster- pour certains mots dont l'unique voyelle est une voyelle brève, on double la consonne finale: big/bigger, sad/sadder, dim/dimmer, wet/wetter etc- attention aux adjectifs en ‘y’: sunny devient sunnier, pretty/prettier, happy/happier etc2 adjectifs et adverbes longsOn ajoute more devant le mot: plus beau/compétent/intéressant = more beautiful/competent/interesting; plus facilement/sérieusement = more easily/seriously- certains mots de deux syllabes admettent les deux formes: simple peut produire simpler ou more simple, handsome/handsomer ou more handsome etc- certains mots de deux syllabes n'admettent que la forme avec more: callous/more callous, cunning/more cunning- les adverbes se terminant par ‘-ly’ n'admettent que la forme avec more: quickly/more quickly, slowly/more slowly etc1 adjectifs et adverbes courtsEn règle générale on ajoute ‘(e)st’ à la fin du mot: le plus grand/petit/simple = the tallest/smallest/simplest; le plus longtemps/vite = the longest/fastest- pour certains mots dont l'unique voyelle est une voyelle brève, on double la consonne finale: big- the biggest, sad- the saddest, dim- the dimmest etc- attention aux adjectifs en ‘y’: sunny devient the sunniest, pretty/the prettiest, happy/the happiest etc2 adjectifs et adverbes longsOn ajoute the most devant le mot: le plus beau/compétent/intéressant = the most beautiful/competent/interesting; le plus facilement/sérieusement = the most easily/seriously- certains mots de deux syllabes admettent les deux formes: simple/the simplest ou the most simple, clever/the cleverest ou the most clever etc- certains mots de deux syllabes n'admettent que la forme avec the most: callous/the most callous, cunning/the most cunning etc- les adverbes en ‘-ly’ n'admettent que la forme avec the most: quickly/the most quickly, slowly/the most slowly etcAttention: lorsque la comparaison ne porte que sur deux éléments on utilise la forme du comparatif: le plus doué des deux = the more gifted of the two; la voiture la plus rapide des deux = the faster carL'expression le plus possible est traitée avec possibleOn trouvera ci-contre exemples et exceptions illustrant les différentes fonctions de plus. On trouvera également des exemples de plus dans les notes d'usage. Voir l'index* * *ply, plys1. adv1) (négation)ne... plus — no longer, not... any more
Il ne travaille plus ici. — He's no longer working here., He doesn't work here any more.
Je ne veux plus le voir. — I don't want to see him any more., I no longer want to see him.
ne plus avoir de qch; Je n'ai plus d'argent. — I've got no more money., I've got no money left
Je n'ai plus de pain. — I've got no bread left., I've got no more bread.
2) (comparatif: devant un adjectif) moreIl fait un peu plus froid qu'hier. — It's a bit colder than yesterday.
Elle est plus grande que moi. — She's bigger than me.
Il est plus intelligent que son frère. — He's more intelligent than his brother.
3) (comparaison: non suivi d'un adjectif)Il travaille plus. — He works more.
Il travaille plus que moi. — He works more than me.
4)plus de; Il nous faut plus de pain. — We need more bread.
plus de 3 heures — more than 3 hours, over 3 hours
Il y avait plus de dix personnes. — There were more than 10 people.
plus de minuit — after midnight, past midnight
5)de plus; Il a 3 ans de plus que moi. — He's 3 years older than me.
Le voyage a pris trois heures de plus que prévu. — The journey took 3 hours longer than planned.
Il nous faut un joueur de plus. — We need one more player.
6)en plus; 3 kilos en plus — 3 kilos more
J'ai apporté quelques gâteaux en plus. — I brought a few more cakes.
en plus de; Deux personnes sont arrivées en plus de celles qui étaient déjà là. — Two more people came, in addition to those already there.
7)plus... plus... — the more... the more...
Plus il gagne d'argent, plus il en veut. — The more money he earns, the more he wants.
8)Il y a de plus en plus de touristes par ici. — There are more and more tourists round here.
de plus en plus (suivi d'un adjectif) Il fait de plus en plus chaud. — It's getting hotter and hotter.
9)ni plus ni moins — no more, no less
10) (superlatif)le plus; la plus; les plus — the most
C'est le plus grand de la famille. — He's the tallest in his family., (sans adjectif, modifiant un verbe)
C'est ce qu'elle aime le plus. — That's what she likes most.
de plus — what's more, moreover
en plus de cela... — what is more...
2. conjQuatre plus deux égalent six. — 4 plus 2 is 6.
3. nm(= avantage) plus* * *I.plus ⇒ Note d'usageA prép1 ( dans une addition) 8 plus 3 égale 11 8 and 3 equals 11, 8 plus 3 equals 11; on nous a servi du fromage, un dessert plus du café we were served cheese, a dessert and coffee (as well);2 ( pour exprimer une valeur) un jour il faisait moins 5°, le lendemain plus 10° one day it was minus 5°, the next plus 10°.B adv de comparaison1 ( modifiant un verbe) ( comparatif) more; ( superlatif) le plus the most; il mange/travaille plus (que moi) he eats/works more (than I do ou than me); tu devrais demander plus you should ask for more; je ne peux pas faire plus I can do no more, I can't do any more, I can't do more than that; elle en sait plus que lui sur le sujet she knows more about the subject than he does; c'est plus que je ne peux supporter it's more than I can bear; elle l'aime plus que tout she loves him/her more than anything; il est plus à plaindre qu'autre chose he's more to be pitied than anything else; c'est plus que bien it's more than just good; elle est plus que jolie she's more than just pretty; il a fait plus que l'embaucher, il l'a aussi formé he did more than just hire him, he also trained him; j'en ai plus qu'assez I've had more than enough; elle mange deux fois/trois fois plus que lui she eats twice/three times as much as he does; plus je gagne, plus je dépense the more I earn, the more I spend; plus j'y pense, moins je comprends the more I think about it, the less I understand; plus ça va as time goes on; qui plus est furthermore, what's more; c'est lui qui m'a le plus appris he's the one who taught me the most; quel pays aimes-tu le plus? which country do you like best?; de plus en plus more and more; il fume de plus en plus he smokes more and more;2 ( modifiant un adjectif) ( comparatif) more; ( superlatif) most; deux fois plus vieux/cher twice as old/expensive (que as); trois/quatre fois plus cher three/four times as expensive (que as); il n'est pas plus riche que moi he's no richer than I am ou than me, he isn't any richer than I am ou than me; c'est le même modèle en plus petit it's the same model, only smaller; il est on ne peut plus gentil/désagréable he's as nice/unpleasant as can be; il est plus ou moins fou he's more or less insane; il est plus ou moins artiste he's an artist of sorts; la cuisine était plus ou moins propre the kitchen wasn't particularly clean, the kitchen was clean after a fashion; il a été plus ou moins poli he wasn't particularly polite; ils étaient plus ou moins ivres they were a bit drunk; le plus heureux des hommes the happiest of men; la plus belle de toutes the most beautiful of all; mon vœu le plus cher my dearest wish; l'arbre le plus gros que j'aie jamais vu the biggest tree I've ever seen; son livre le plus court his shortest book; c'est ce qu'il y a de plus beau/important au monde it's the most beautiful/important thing in the world; un livre des plus intéressants a most interesting book; un individu des plus méprisables a most despicable individual; de plus en plus difficile more and more difficult; de plus en plus chaud hotter and hotter;3 ( modifiant un adverbe) ( comparatif) more; ( superlatif) most; trois heures plus tôt/tard three hours earlier/later; deux fois plus longtemps twice as long (que as); trois/quatre fois plus longtemps three/four times as long (que as); ils ne sont pas restés plus longtemps que nous they didn't stay any longer than we did ou than us; il l'a fait plus ou moins bien he didn't do it very well; de plus en plus loin further and further; plus tu te coucheras tard, plus tu auras de mal à te lever the later you go to bed, the harder it'll be for you to get up; plus tu te coucheras tôt, moins tu seras fatigué the earlier you go to bed, the less tired you'll be; c'est moi qui y vais le plus souvent I go there the most often; ça s'est passé le plus simplement/naturellement du monde it happened quite simply/naturally.C adv de négation elle ne fume plus she doesn't smoke any more ou any longer, she no longer smokes, she's given up smoking; il n'habite plus ici he no longer lives here, he doesn't live here any more ou any longer; le grand homme n'est plus the great man is no more; elle ne veut plus le voir she doesn't want to see him any more ou any longer, she no longer wants to see him; il a décidé de ne plus y aller he decided to stop going there; je ne veux plus en entendre parler I don't want to hear any more about it; il n'y est plus (jamais) retourné he never went back there (again); plus jamais ça! never again!; nous ne faisons plus ce modèle we no longer do this model, we don't do this model any more ou any longer; il n'a plus vingt ans ( il n'est plus très jeune) he's not twenty any more, he's no longer twenty; nous n'avons plus d'espoir we've no more hope, we no longer have any hope, we've given up hoping; plus besoin de se presser○ there's no longer any need to hurry, there's no more need to hurry, there's no need to hurry any more; il n'y a plus de pain/d'œufs there is no more bread/there are no more eggs, there isn't any bread left/there aren't any eggs left; je ne veux plus de vin I don't want any more wine; il n'y a plus rien there's nothing left; plus rien ne m'intéresse nothing interests me any more; je ne voyais plus rien I could no longer see anything, I couldn't see a thing any more; il n'y a plus personne dans la pièce there's nobody left in the room, there's no longer anybody in the room; il n'y a plus aucun crayon there aren't any pencils left, there are no more pencils; il n'y a plus aucun problème there's no longer any problem; ce n'est plus du courage, c'est de la folie it's no longer bravery, it's foolhardiness; j'entre dans le garage, plus de voiture○! I went into the garage, the car was gone○!; ce n'est plus qu'une question de jours it's only a matter of days now; il n'y a plus qu'une solution there's only one solution left; il ne restait plus que quelques bouteilles there were only a few bottles left, there was nothing left but a few bottles; il n'y a plus que lui qui puisse nous aider only he can help us now; plus que trois jours avant les vacances! only three days left ou to go until the vacation!; nous n'avons plus qu'à rentrer à la maison all we can do now is go home; il ne me reste plus qu'à vous remercier it only remains for me to thank you.D plus de dét indéf1 ( avec un nom dénombrable) trois/deux fois plus de livres/verres que three times/twice as many books/glasses as; c'est là que j'ai vu le plus de serpents that's where I saw the most snakes; c'est lui qui a le plus de livres he's got the most books; le joueur qui a le plus de chances de gagner the player who is most likely to win; les jeunes qui posent le plus de problèmes the young people who pose the most problems; c'est le candidat qui a remporté le plus de voix he's the candidate who won the most votes; plus tu mangeras de bonbons, plus tu auras de caries the more sweets GB ou candy US you eat, the more cavities you'll have; il y en a plus d'un qui voudrait être à sa place quite a few people would like to be in his/her position;2 ( avec un nom non dénombrable) je n'ai pas pris plus de crème que toi I didn't take any more cream than you did, I took no more cream than you did; il n'a pas plus d'imagination que sa sœur he has no more imagination than his sister, he hasn't got any more imagination than his sister; trois/deux fois plus de vin/talent three times/twice as much wine/talent (que as); le joueur qui a gagné le plus d'argent the player who won the most money;3 ( avec un numéral) elle ne possède pas plus de 50 disques she has no more than 50 records; une foule de plus de 10 000 personnes a crowd of more than ou over 10,000 people; il a plus de 40 ans he's over 40, he's more than 40 years old; les gens de plus de 60 ans people over 60; les plus de 60 ans the over-sixties; il était déjà bien plus de onze heures/midi it was already well past ou after eleven o'clock/midday.F de plus loc adv1 ( en outre) furthermore, moreover, what's more;2 ( en supplément) j'ai mangé deux pommes de plus qu'elle I ate two apples more than she did; donnez-moi deux pommes de plus give me two more apples; ça nous a pris deux heures de plus que la dernière fois it took us two hours longer than last time; j'ai besoin de deux heures de plus I need two more hours; il a trois ans de plus que sa sœur he's three years older than his sister; une fois de plus once more, once again; l'augmentation représente 9% de plus que l'année précédente the rise is 9% more than last year.G en plus loc en plus (de cela) on top of that; il est arrivé en retard et en plus (de cela) il a commencé à se plaindre he arrived late and what' s more ou on top of that he started complaining; c 'est le même modèle avec le toit ouvrant en plus it's the same model, only with a sunroof; c'est tout le portrait de son père, la moustache en plus he's the image of his father, only with a moustache GB ou mustache US; il a reçu 100 euros en plus de son salaire habituel he got 100 euros on top of his usual salary; en plus de son métier d'ingénieur il élève des tatous besides his job as an engineer, he breeds armadillos; les taxes en plus plus tax, tax not included; il s'est passé quelque chose en plus something else happened as well. A note on pronunciation: plus/le plus used in comparison (meaning more/the most) is pronounced [ply] before a consonant and [plyz] before a vowel. It is pronounced [plys] when at the end of a clause. In the plus de and plus que structures both [ply] and [plys] are generally used. plus used in ne plus (meaning no longer/not any more) is always pronounced [ply] except before a vowel, in which case it is pronounced [plyz]: il n'habite plus ici [plyzisi].II.plus nm1 Math plus; le signe plus the plus sign;2 ○( avantage) plus○; son expérience d'enseignant constitue un plus pour lui his teaching experience is a point in his favourGB ou is a plus○.[ply(s)] adverbeA.[COMPARATIF DE SUPÉRIORITÉ]1. [suivi d'un adverbe, d'un adjectif]c'est plus loin it's further ou fartherc'est plus rouge qu'orange it's red rather than ou it's more red than orangec'est plus que gênant it's embarrassing, to say the leastelle a eu le prix mais elle n'en est pas plus fière pour ça she got the award, but it didn't make her any prouder for all thatje veux la même, en plus large I want the same, only biggerencore plus beau more handsome still, even more handsomecinq fois plus cher five times dearer ou as dear ou more expensive2. [avec un verbe] moreje m'intéresse à la question plus que tu ne penses I'm more interested in the question than you thinkB.[SUPERLATIF DE SUPÉRIORITÉ]1. [suivi d'un adverbe, d'un adjectif]le plus loin the furthest ou farthestc'est ce qu'il y a de plus original dans sa collection d'été it's the most original feature of his summer collection2. [précédé d'un verbe] mostc'est moi qui travaille le plus I'm the one who works most ou the hardestC.[ADVERBE DE NÉGATION]1. [avec 'ne']2. [tour elliptique]plus de glace pour moi, merci no more ice cream for me, thanks————————[ply(s)] adjectif————————[ply(s)] conjonction3 plus 3 égale 6 3 plus 3 is ou makes 6il fait plus 5º it's 5º above freezing, it's plus 5º2. [en sus de] plusle transport, plus le logement, plus la nourriture, ça revient cher travel, plus ou and accommodation, plus ou then food, (all) work out quite expensiveplus le fait que... plus ou together with the fact that...————————[ply(s)] nom masculinau plus locution adverbiale[au maximum] at the most ou outsideça coûtera au plus 30 euros it'll cost a maximum of 30 euros ou 30 euros at mostde plus locution adverbialemets deux couverts de plus lay two extra ou more placesil est content, que te faut-il de plus? he's happy, what more do you want?un mot/une minute de plus et je m'en allais another word/minute and I would have left10 euros de plus ou de moins, quelle différence? 10 euros either way, what difference does it make?2. [en trop] too manyen recomptant, je trouve trente points de plus on adding it up again, I get thirty points too manyde plus, il m'a menti what's more, he lied to mede plus en plus locution adverbiale[suivi d'un adverbe] more and morede plus en plus dangereux more and more ou increasingly dangerousça devient de plus en plus facile/compliqué it's getting easier and easier/more and more complicated2. [précédé d'un verbe]de plus en plus de locution déterminante[suivi d'un nom comptable] more and more, a growing number of[suivi d'un nom non comptable] more and morede plus en plus de gens more and more people, an increasing number of peopleil y a de plus en plus de demande pour ce produit demand for this product is increasing, there is more and more demand for this productdes plus locution adverbialeson attitude est des plus compréhensibles her attitude is most ou quite understandableen plus locution adverbiale1. [en supplément] extra (avant nom)les boissons sont en plus drinks are extra, you pay extra for the drinks10 euros en plus ou en moins, quelle différence? 10 euros either way, what difference does it make?[en trop] sparea. [à la fin du jeu] I've got one card left overb. [en distribuant] I've got one card too manyet vous emportez une bouteille de champagne en plus! and you get a bottle of Champagne as well ou on top of that ou into the bargain!elle a une excellente technique et en plus, elle a de la force her technique's first-class and she's got strength tooet elle m'avait menti, en plus! not only that but she'd lied to me (as well)!je ne tiens pas à le faire et, en plus, je n'ai pas le temps I'm not too keen on doing it, and besides ou what's more, I've no timeen plus de locution prépositionnelleen plus du squash, elle fait du tennis besides (playing) squash, she plays tenniset plus locution adverbiale45 kilos et plus over 45 kilos, 45 odd kilosni plus ni moins locution adverbialeje te donne une livre, ni plus ni moins I'll give you one pound, no more no lesstu t'es trompé, ni plus ni moins you were mistaken, that's allnon plus locution adverbialeje ne sais pas — moi non plus! I don't know — neither do I ou nor do I ou me neither!on ne peut plus locution adverbialeplus de locution déterminante1. [comparatif, suivi d'un nom] moreelle roulait à plus de 150 km/h she was driving at more than 150 km/h ou doing over 150 km/hil est plus de 5 h it's past 5 o'clock ou after 52. [superlatif, suivi d'un nom]les plus de 20 ans people over 20, the over-20splus... moins locution correlativethe more... the lessplus il vieillit, moins il a envie de sortir the older he gets, the less he feels like going outplus ça va, moins je la comprends I understand her less and less (as time goes on)plus... plus locution correlativethe more... the moreplus je réfléchis, plus je me dis que... the more I think (about it), the more I'm convinced that...plus ça va, plus il est agressif he's getting more and more aggressive (all the time)plus ça va, plus je me demande si... the longer it goes on, the more I wonder if...plus ou moins locution adverbialec'est plus ou moins cher, selon les endroits prices vary according to where you arequi plus est locution adverbialewhat's ou what is moresans plus locution adverbialec'était bien, sans plus it was nice, but nothing moretout au plus locution adverbialec'est une mauvaise grippe, tout au plus it's a bad case of flu, at the most
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